The Achaemenid Empire, c. 550-330 BCE, or First Persian Empire, was founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great, in Western and Central Asia. when the region was occupied by a series of pastoral peoples and farmers, known at that time as Medes and Persians. The Achaemenid Empire, c. 550-330 BCE, or First Persian Empire, was founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great, in Western and Central Asia. The inscription begins by tracing the ancestry of Darius, followed by a description of a sequence of events following the deaths of the previous two Achaemenid emperors, Cyrus the Great and Cyrus’s son, Cambyses II, in which Darius fought 19 battles in one year to put down numerous rebellions throughout the Persian lands. Around 550 BCE, Cyrus II of Persia, who became known as Cyrus the Great, rose in rebellion against the Median Empire, eventually conquering the Medes to create the first Persian Empire, also known as the Achaemenid Empire. Zoroastrianism. Infrastructure, including the Royal Road, standardized language, and a postal service facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. In fact, the policies of Cyrus with respect to treatment of minority religions were well documented in Babylonian texts, as well as in Jewish sources. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/persian-empire The religion states that active participation in life through good deeds is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. In the second millennium, around 1500, the Indo-European Persians from the other side of the Caucasus occupied the western regions of Iran. Other groups penetrated Asia Minor and other branches came to India. For a modern day comparison, it is equivalent to approximately two times the size of Argentina. Quiz What are the names of the other major Mesopotamian Empires? Zoroastrians usually pray in the presence of some form of fire (which can be considered evident in any source of light), and the culminating rite of the principle act of worship constitutes a “strengthening of the waters.” Fire is considered a medium through which spiritual insight and wisdom is gained, and water is considered the source of that wisdom. Using thick, heat-resistant construction materials, the subterranean stor… Relief of Cyrus the Great: Cyrus II of Persia, better known as Cyrus the Great, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Up to the age of 50, he could be called upon to serve again if needed. This expansion continued even further afield with Anatolia and the Armenian Plateau, much of the Southern Caucasus, Macedonia, parts of Greece and Thrace, Central Asia as far as the Aral Sea, the Oxus and Jaxartes areas, the Hindu Kush and the western Indus basin, and parts of northern Arabia and northern Libya. From the age of five until he was 20, every Persian boy was trained in archery and horse riding. These irrigation tunnels were often several kilometers long. Persian Empire The king, who was chosen by their god, freed neighboring peoples from their oppressive local kings (through conquest). Discuss how the central government provided cultural and economic reform. After the governments of the last Persian emperors, Artaxerxes I and Darius II, central and peripheral politics gradually degraded. The Persian Empire was actually a series of empires, ruled by a string of imperial dynasties for more nearly two and a half millennia beginning six hundred years before the Common Era. Drawing on historical and archaeological evidence, this fascinating documentary by Dr. Farzin Rezaeian reconstructs 7,000 years of Iranian history. At its height, the Achaemenid Empire ruled over 44% of the world’s population, the highest such figure for any empire in history. The origins of  Persian Empire date back to 2000 B.C. The spread of Sasanian military to cover the four sections (spahbeds) of the Persian empire (Khurasan, Khurbarãn, Nimroz, and Azerbaijan), each with its own general, meant that troops were too thinly spread to resist the Arabs. The ancient Babylonians called him “The Liberator,” while the modern nation of Iran calls Cyrus its “father.”. This unprecedented area of control under a single ruler stretched from the Indus Valley in the east to Thrace and Macedon on the northeastern border of Greece. Boasting a population of 35 million it was a massive empire, its influence reaching into far expanses. Cyrus utilized his tactical genius, as well as his understanding of the socio-political conditions governing his territories, to eventually assimilate the neighboring Lydian and Neo-Babylonian empires into the new Persian Empire. The Magi appear to have been the priestly caste of the Mesopotamian-influenced branch of Zoroastrianism today known as Zurvanism, and they wielded considerable influence at the courts of the Median emperors. Cyrus the Great maintained control over a vast empire by installing regional governors, called satraps, to rule individual provinces. The contesting force to Ahura Mazda was called Angra Mainyu, or angry spirit. CC licensed content, Specific attribution, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_achaemenid_empire_en.png, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Olympic_Park_Cyrus-3.jpg, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behistun_Inscription, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_language, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darius_the_great, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_great, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bisotun_Iran_Relief_Achamenid_Period.JPG, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Persepolis_reliefs_2005a.jpg, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gold_cup_kalardasht.jpg, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism#/media/File:BactrianZoroastrian.jpg, Around 550 BCE, Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) conquered the Median. For example, Babylon was assessed for the highest amount of silver taxes, while Egypt owed grain in addition to silver taxes. Achaemenian Dynasty, also called Achaemenid, Persian Hakhamanishiya, (559–330 bce), ancient Iranian dynasty whose kings founded and ruled the Achaemenian Empire. When Darius moved his capital from Pasargadae to Persepolis, he revolutionized the economy by placing it on a silver and gold coinage and introducing a regulated and sustainable tax system. They had no temples or images of gods because for them they had no human nature. Control of this large territory involved a centralized government, territorial monarchs who served as proxy rulers for the emperor, and an extensive system of commerce and trade. Tariffs on trade from the territories were one of the empire’s main sources of revenue, in addition to agriculture and tribute. Because the Achaemenid empire embraced many nations and cultures, each with its own distinctive social structure, it is impossible to speak of “society” in the singular. Sort by: Top Voted. However, the Persian Empire persisted to maintain control over Afghanistan, Turkey, and Egypt for the next 150 years. This professional army included the Immortals unit, comprising 10,000 highly trained heavy infantry. Trade caravan routes passed through Iran from India and China to the Mediterranean Sea. Zoroastrianism served as the state religion of the pre-Islamic Iranian empires from c. 600 BCE to 650 CE, but saw a steep decline after the Muslim conquest of Persia. Carrots, pumpkins, eggplants, garlic, onions, spinach, and various beans were all likely grown, as well as nuts such as almonds and pistachios. The Persians expanded their territories, thanks to King Cyrus II who helped them achieve independence from the Medes, who made the Persian… Its name comes from the Greek Perses-polis (Persian City), but the Persians knew it as Parsa (City of the Persians).Construction began between 518-515 BCE under Darius I who wanted a fresh start for Persian government administration and moved … The religion of the Persian Empire came from sermons of the prophet Zoroaster, the Zoroastrianism. Also called the Medo-Persian Empire, this dynasty was based in western Asia, in the heart of Iran.At its height around 475 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire ruled over 44% of the world’s population, the highest figure for any empire in history. The ancient Persian Empire was one of the kingdoms most recognized for its majestic and marvelous structures located in the desert, for its great wealth and for its perfect military skill; a place governed by kings who exercised great power and ambition, and who managed to conquer from North Africa to Asia. Moreover because of the vast size of the Persian Empire crops from one region were introduced to anot… The cylinder dates from the 6th century BCE, and was discovered in the ruins of Babylon in Mesopotamia, now Iraq, in 1879. The unified form of the empire came in the form of a central administration around the city of Pasargadae, which was erected by Cyrus c. 550 BCE. The Persians had mastered the technique of building and using the yakhchalby 400 BC. The region of Parsuash was annexed by Sargon of Assyria around 719 BC. The soldiers were in charge of protecting the borders, the plebs were a class made up of peasants and artisans and the slaves who came from the wars, were property of the state and were small groups. At the end of time, a savior-figure (a Saoshyant) will bring about a final renovation of the world (frashokereti), in which the dead will be revived. The Persian Empire MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES TAKING NOTES Cyrus Only Both First Age of Empires 99 EMPIRE BUILDING By governing with tolerance and wisdom, the Persians established a well-ordered empire that lasted for 200 years. He proclaimed that there is only one God, the singularly creative and sustaining force of the Universe. Forum What did I do well? Zoroastrian Priest: Painted clay and alabaster head of a Zoroastrian priest wearing a distinctive Bactrian-style headdress, Takhti-Sangin, Tajikistan, Greco-Bactrian kingdom, 3rd-2nd century BCE. After that, he spent four years in compulsory military service. Meat was eaten by both the poor and the rich. The Persian forces went to Lydia and Ionia, conquering them; they attacked Babylon, and controlled Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine, liberating, in the same way, the Israelites in captivity. In 330 B.C., Alexander the Great found disarticulated and chaotic regions that he could easily conquer. Cyrus, whose rule lasted between 29 and 31 years, until his death in battle in 530 BCE, controlled the vast Achaemenid Empire through the use of regional monarchs, called satrap, who each oversaw a territory called a satrapy. They had concepts related to the final judgment in which the spirit of the dead was judged depending on what he had done in life and that would define his future in his new life after death. Explain Zoroastrianism and its impact on Persian culture. They considered that lying was the greatest dishonor and contracting debts was shameful. Tariffs on trade were one of the empire’s main sources of revenue, in addition to agriculture and tribute. most notably Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus. Political and social organization of the Persian Empire. They taught their children only to ride horses, shoot bows and tell the truth. Herodotus’ The Histories (completed c. 440 BCE) includes a description of Greater Iranian society with what may be recognizably Zoroastrian features, including exposure of the dead. However, there were some trends within the empire which were felt throughout the empire.The first was the spread of a Persian or Iranian landowning class. The situation in the area was as follows: 1… To deal with the arid climate the Persians developed an irrigation system. Researchers were able to compare the scripts and use it to help decipher ancient languages, in this way making the Behistun Inscription as valuable to cuneiform as the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyphs. During the king’s long absence during his expansion campaign, a Zoarastrian priest, named Guamata, staged a coup by impersonating Cambryses II’s younger brother, Bardiya, and seized the throne. Advertisement. The religion states that active participation in life through good deeds is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. He achieved Greek dominion over Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Egypt, and then dominated Iran and Central Asia, marking the end of the Empire. Both water and fire are considered life-sustaining, and both water and fire are represented within the precinct of a fire temple. The Sassanids aggressively promoted the Zurvanite form of Zoroastrianism, often building fire temples in captured territories to promote the religion. Under his rule, the empire assimilated all the civilized states of the ancient Near East, and eventually conquered most of Southwest Asia and much of Central Asia and the Caucasus. Achaemenid golden bowl with lion imagery: Trade in the Achaemenid Empire was extensive. They inhabited the Iranian Plateau, east of Mesopotamia, a semi-arid region, with mineral-rich mountains, deserts and few fertile valleys, a dry climate, with large temperature fluctuations. The Great Seljuq Empire (Persian: آل سلجوق ‎, romanized: Āl-e Saljuq, lit. 'House of Saljuq') or the Seljuk Empire was a high medieval Turko-Persian Sunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qiniq branch of Oghuz Turks. Philip II, King of Macedonia, planned to seize the Persian Empire, but died. Cyrus the Great and the Achaemenid Empire. It was the first centralized nation-state, and during expansion in approximately 550-500 BCE, it became the first global empire and eventually ruled over significant portions of the ancient world. Priests were a pillar within society and there were many temples. It eventually came to control Egypt, as well. Han China PERSIAN Chart for Classical Civilizations Key ERA: 8,000 B.C.E. The basic rule of governance was based upon the loyalty and obedience of the satrapy to the central power, the king, and compliance with tax laws. The Persian Empire was an empire that stretched from India to Europe from 550 B.C.E. When Darius I (550-486 BCE), also known as Darius the Great, ascended the throne of the Achaemenid Empire in 522 BCE, he established Aramaic as the official language and devised a codification of laws for Egypt. Practice: Ancient Persia . The most important texts of the religion are those of the Avesta, which includes the writings of Zoroaster, known as the Gathas and the Yasna. The main characteristics of the Persian Empire were: Its founder was Cyrus the Great, who after defeating the Medes, Lydians and Babylonians, extended his dominions all over the place. These Medes invaded the Iranian plateau and the Persians settled south-east of the Iranian plateau closest to the Persian Gulf. The society was formed by the king who was considered a god and lived in the capital, the royal family was quite extensive, and the king had a harem, so the monarchs had many children, there was the group of nobles who were the wealthiest families and were members of the court. Zoroastrianism is ascribed to the teachings of Zoroaster, an Iranian prophet, who worshiped Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord), as its Supreme Being. However, his son, Alexander, took the throne and completed his father’s mission. A number of the Zoroastrian texts that today are part of the greater compendium of the Avesta have been attributed to that period. Cyrus the Great was recognized for achievements in human rights and politics, having influenced both Eastern and Western Civilization. The Cyrus Cylinder is an ancient clay artifact, now broken into several fragments, that has been called the oldest-known charter of universal human rights and a symbol of his humanitarian rule. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, the Achaemenid Empire became the first global empire. Whatever Alexander tells you, this was the world’s first great empire. – 220 C.E. He initiated several major architectural projects, including the construction of a palace and a treasure house. Practice: State-building: The Persian Empire. As late as the Parthian period, a form of Zoroastrianism was without a doubt the dominant religion in the Armenian lands. Although they gained power by conquering local people, the Persian Empire marked a period of peaceful rule and extensive trading for much of the … The entire empire was divided into provinces, each ruled by a relative or close associate of the king, and each monitored by military officers, tax collectors, and spies. The relays of mounted couriers could reach the most remote areas in 15 days. Trade infrastructure facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire, including the Royal Road, standardized language, and a postal service. Under the Achaemenids, trade was extensive and there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. World History Chapter 4 Section 3 - The Persian Empire 1. 12. The roots of Zoroastrianism are thought to have emerged from a common prehistoric Indo-Iranian religious system dating back to the early 2nd millennium BCE. He also stated that human beings are given a right of choice, and because of cause and effect are also responsible for the consequences of their choices. At the age of 20 they were eligible for military service. They made sacrifices and sang hymns to the gods. They accepted foreign customs and for this reason they wore the Medes costume because they thought it was more distinguished and they also used Egyptian bibs for wars. However, its real organizer was Darius, who managed to expand the borders with the definitive incorporation of Egypt. Our mission is to provide a free, world-class education to anyone, anywhere. Eventually the Medes came to rule an independent Median Empire, and the Persians were subject to them. Hunting and fishing were also important source of food. People suffering from leprosy were considered impure for having committed a crime against the sun and if they were foreigners they were taken out of the country. It was centered in modern day Iran. – 600 C.E. In addition to describing the genealogy of Cyrus, the declaration in Akkadian cuneiform script on the cylinder is considered by many Biblical scholars to be evidence of Cyrus’s policy of repatriation of the Jewish people following their captivity in Babylon. Persia or otherwise known as, The Persian Empire were imperialistic dynasties in what was originally called Persia and is now known as Iran.This was first established by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC and there was the Persian Conquest of Media, Lydia, and Babylonia. They inherited great discoveries such as the existence of underground water, invented wells that are even the same one used to extract oil, invented canals and left ideas of freedom and respect for other cultures. They had strict and careful rules about sentencing a punishment for a crime. The satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch of which was the Royal Road, from Susa to Sardis. Neither did they make funerals or burials because they considered that they soiled the earth for this reason they let the animals and vultures eat the bodies of the dead. The Persian people is of Indo-European origin and was people subdued by the Medes, an Asian kingdom settled in the rivers of Mesopotamia and who could expand their territories thanks to King Cyrus II the Great, belonging to the Achaemenid dynasty, who also freed them from the Medes. to 331 B.C.E. The Persian empire was vast and power and like any powerful empire Persia needed agricultural surplus. Cyrus also connected the various regions of the empire through an innovative postal system that made use of an extensive roadway and relay stations. The empire was ruled by a series of monarchs who joined its disparate tribes by constructing a complex network of roads. After his death in 530 BCE, Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses II, who conquered Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica in 525 BCE; he died in 522 BCE during a revolt. About 2,300 years ago, the Persian Empire covered over two million square miles and held nearly half the world’s population. In the Cappadocian kingdom (whose territory was formerly an Achaemenid possession), Persian colonists who were cut off from their co-religionists in Iran proper continued to practice the Zoroastrianism of their forefathers. Did you know? The structure above the ground was dome-shaped and had a subterranean storage space. The Persian Empire were groups of different dynasties that inhabited a vast territory, where cultures were respected and who were responsible for governing Persia mainly during the Empire Achaemenid with Cyrus II the Great. The Achaemenid Empire reached enormous size under the leadership of Cyrus II of Persia (576-530 BCE), commonly known as Cyrus the Great, who created a multi-state empire. Darius also sponsored work on construction projects throughout the empire, focusing on improvement of the cities of Susa, Pasargadae, Persepolis, Babylon, and various municipalities in Egypt. Recent estimates place the current number of Zoroastrians at around 2.6 million, with most living in India and Iran. They practiced a wide trade thanks to the creation of the coins, this coin was called Daric, and they were minted in gold which stimulated the internal and international trade. Ancient Greek accounts state that Persian boys were trained in riding, archery, hand-to-hand combat, and mounted combat. The Histories is a primary source of information on the early period of the Achaemenid era (648-330 BCE), in particular with respect to the role of the Magi. In the final renovation, all of creation—even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to “darkness”—will be reunited in Ahura Mazda, returning to life in the undead form. Cyrus was known to have an overall attitude of religious tolerance throughout the empire, although it has been debated whether this was by his own implementation or a continuation of Babylonian and Assyrian policies. For the next two centuries, the Persians and Medes were at times tributary to the Assyrians. There, Strabo, observing in the first century BCE, records that these “fire kindlers” possessed many “holy places of the Persian Gods,” as well as fire temples. Quiz Where is… The Persian Empire expanded under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, who used a strategy of religious and cultural tolerance to maintain order. They married several wives and had a higher number of concubines. methods the Persian Empire use to expand its influence and power -- visual, literary, and ritual expressions of the legitimacy of its power, built on a religious foundation -- military force, including the adoption and successful use of new military technologies The Persians fed mainly on bread, sesame oil, wine and fish. Called Cyrus the Elder by the Greeks, he founded an empire initially comprising all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East and eventually most of Southwest and Central Asia and the Caucus region, stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River. When the Persians conquered a kingdom, some or all of the vanquished kings’ and nobles’ estates were confiscated and taken over by the Persian king. Zoroastrianism enters recorded history in the mid-5th century BCE. Immense and extraordinary advances were needed in the area of engineering, not only in the construction of its buildings, but also in the creation of roads, bridges and canals. Those who remained in the Iranian plateau were called Medes and Persians, the Medes occupied the territories to the North of the plateau and the Persians, occupied the lands to the south. Cyrus the Great was succeeded by his son Cambryses II in 530 BCE and then the usurper Gaumata, and finally by Darius the Great in 522 BCE. Persian reliefs in the city of Persepolis: Darius the Great moved the capital of the Achaemenid Empire to Persepolis c. 522 BCE. Up Next. The yakhchal is an ancient evaporation cooler which has a two-fold meaning: yakh means “ice” and chal means “pit.” These ancient refrigerators were mainly built and used in Persia. At its peak, the Persian Empire spanned 5.5 million square kilometers. The dynasty drew its name from Achaemenes, who, from 705-675 BCE, ruled Persis, which was land bounded on the west by the Tigris River and on the south by the Persian Gulf. Persian farmers grew wheat, barley, olives and wine. They sloped slightly so gravity moved the water. The beginning of the end of the Persians came with the defeat in the Medical Wars, when they failed to face the Greek army, and a series of social and cultural factors that brought down the essence of the empire’s unification. The Persians expanded their territories, thanks to King Cyrus II who helped them achieve independence from the Medes, who made the Persians their subordinates. Sometime after his coronation, Darius ordered an inscription to be carved on a limestone cliff of Mount Behistun in modern Iran. The Persians unified several peoples of the Fertile Crescent, and their borders stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean. Discuss the Achaemenid as the first global empire. A Hegemonic Empire maintains control by making other people want to be part of it, typically by Rule of Cool and being the lesser of two evils.Therefore, it justifies all of its potential infringements in civil liberties or human rights as Necessarily Evil.. Impalement was a method of Persian torture and execution. 3.1.1. During the period of their centuries long suzerainty over the Caucasus, the Sassanids made attempts to promote Zoroastrianism there with considerable successes. Emperors Cyrus II and Darius I created a centralized government and extensive trade network in the Achaemenid Empire. Between c. 500-400 BCE, Darius the Great and his son, Xerxe I, ruled the Persian Plateau and all of the territories formerly held by the Assyrian Empire, including Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Cyprus. The religion would be professed many centuries following the demise of the Achaemenids in mainland Persia and the core regions of the former Achaemenid Empire— The sacred book of the Persian religion was known by the name of Avesta and focused on the existence of two spirits: one called Ahura-Mazda, which was the god that represented good, and Angra-Mainyu which represented evil. At its peak it encompassed present day Iraq and Iran, Syria, Israel, Anatolia, parts of Egypt, the Arabian peninsula, much of Central Asia, and Macedonia to the north of classical Greece. In Zoroastrianism, water (apo, aban) and fire (atar, azar) are agents of ritual purity, and the associated purification ceremonies are considered the basis of ritual life. Trade managed to give an important boost to the industry of luxury textiles, jewelry, mosaics and rugs and carpets. This structure precisely tailored the taxes of each satrapy based on its projected productivity and economic potential. The Persian Empire started the concept of uniforms in the military. His passage to the East is the end point of an empire in which values such as tolerance and respect for other cultures played a decisive role in good governance. Darius I, and later Achaemenid emperors, acknowledged their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions (as attested to several times in the Behistun inscription), and appear to have continued the model of coexistence with other religions. Perhaps the main contribution of the Persian Empire was the way in which they obtained their income and wealth. With possible roots dating back to the second millennium BCE, Zoroastrianism enters recorded history in the 5th-century BCE. Leading characteristics, such as messianism, heaven and hell, and free will are said to have influenced other religious systems, including Second Temple Judaism, Gnosticism, Christianity, and Islam. Emperor Xerxes, Darius's son, took over following his death and tried to expand.He attempted to conquer Greece, but failed just like his father. When Darius the Great ascended the throne in 522 BCE, he organized a new uniform monetary system and. (Rich Persians also enjoyed hunting wild animals). Behistun Inscription: A section of the Behistun Inscription on a limestone cliff of Mount Behistun in western Iran, which became a key in deciphering cuneiform script. Zoroastrianism as a religion was not firmly established until several centuries later. They left a system of weights and measures, irrigation systems and proper use of water, construction techniques and surveying, we inherited their algebra, geometry, chemistry and physics. The Behistun Inscription, the text of which Darius wrote, came to have great linguistic significance as a crucial clue in deciphering cuneiform script. It was also prominent in the pre-Christian Caucasus (especially modern-day Azerbaijan). 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Recorded history in the mid-7th century CE, and Mazda, Supremely Wise mastered the technique building... Between families in search of power and like any powerful Empire Persia agricultural! Olives and wine ordered an inscription to be carved on a limestone cliff Mount. Zoroastrianism was without a doubt the dominant religion in the city of Persepolis: Darius the,! By 651, the Sassanids aggressively promoted the Zurvanite form of Zoroastrianism, often fire... Example, Babylon was assessed for the next 150 years could easily conquer dating. An ancient Persian religion, had a major influence on the culture and religion of the other major Mesopotamian?... On the culture and religion of the Iranian plateau closest to the Mediterranean Sea and his,...